A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers (yarn or thread). Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibers of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, felting, or braiding.
The related words "fabric" and "cloth"are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibers, including carpeting and geo textiles. A fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods (garments, etc.). Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric that has been processed
History
The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the ice ages. Then at some point people learned to weave plant fibers into textiles.
The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times.
The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. However, for the main types of textiles,
plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.
UsesTextiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting and embroidery. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems" using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements.
Sources and types
Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (
wool,
silk), plant (
cotton,
flax,
jute), mineral (
asbestos,
glass fibre), and synthetic (
nylon,
polyester,
acrylic). The first three are natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from
petroleum.
Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest
microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the sturdiest
canvas.
Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive terms, from light
gauze-like
gossamer to heavy
grosgrain cloth and beyond.
Animal
Animal textiles are commonly made from
hair,
fur,
skin or
silk (in the silkworms case).
Wool refers to the hair of the domestic
goat or
sheep,
which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the
individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the
wool as a whole is coated with a
wax mixture known as
lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.
Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while
worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing.
Cashmere, the hair of the Indian
cashmere goat, and
mohair, the hair of the North African
angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.
Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool,
vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of
coats,
jackets,
ponchos,
blankets, and other warm coverings.
Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the
angora rabbit.
Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the
muskox.
Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE.
Sea silk
is an extremely fine, rare, and valuable fabric that is made from the
silky filaments or byssus secreted by a gland in the foot of pen shells.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the
cocoon of the Chinese
silkworm
which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are
two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori,
and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk. Silkworm larvae produce the first
type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for
consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely
on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production
consists of cultivated silk.
Plant
Grass,
rush,
hemp, and
sisal are all used in making
rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized.
Coir (
coconut fibre) is used in making
twine, and also in floormats,
doormats,
brushes,
mattresses, floor tiles, and
sacking.
Straw and
bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is
kapok.
Fibres from
pulpwood trees, cotton,
rice, hemp, and
nettle are used in making
paper.
Cotton,
flax, jute, hemp,
modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in clothing.
Piña (
pineapple fibre) and
ramie
are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other
fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and
fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has
also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other
fibres like hemp or flax.
The inner bark of the
lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as
silks,
velvets, and
taffetas.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as
alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
Lyocell is a synthetic fabric derived from wood pulp. It is often described as a synthetic silk
equivalent; it is a tough fabric that is often blended with other fabrics – cotton, for example.
Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres.
Mineral
Asbestos and
basalt fibre
are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and
siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
Glass fibre
is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes
and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting,
flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and
insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with
Teflon to produce
beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States
space suits since 1968.
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of
cloth-of-gold and
jewellery.
Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven
mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard
window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave.
Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in
emery cloth, a layer of
emery
abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a U.S. term
for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth
or coarse
sandpaper.
Synthetic
Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of
geotextiles.
Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
Aramid fibre (e.g.
Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of
pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in
rope and outdoor clothing.
Spandex (trade name
Lycra) is a
polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make
activewear,
bras, and
swimsuits.
Olefin fibre
is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are
hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin
fibres is sold under the trade name
Tyvek.
Ingeo is a
polylactide
fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing.
It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick
away perspiration.
Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or
casein fibre cloth was developed during
World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH
similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is
marketed as a
biodegradable,
renewable synthetic fibre.
Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as
carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization.
Production methods
Top five exporters of textiles—2013
($ billion)
|
| China |
274
|
| India |
40
|
| Italy |
36
|
| Germany |
35
|
| Bangladesh |
28
|
|
|
Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer
threads (called the
warp) with a set of crossing threads (called the
weft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a
loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.
Knitting,
looping, and
crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a
knitting needle, needle, or on a
crochet hook,
together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has
several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to
interlock with another loop, while Looping and crocheting never have
more than one active loop on the needle. Knitting can be performed by
machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.
Spread Tow
is a production method where the yarn are spread into thin tapes, and
then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used
for composite materials;
spread tow fabrics can be made in
carbon,
aramide, etc.
Braiding or plaiting involves twisting threads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying threads together and is used in making
macrame.
Lace
is made by interlocking threads together independently, using a backing
and any of the methods described above, to create a fine fabric with
open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine.
Carpets, rugs, velvet,
velour, and
velveteen are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a
nap or
pile.
Felting involves pressing a mat of fibres together, and working
them together until they become tangled. A liquid, such as soapy water,
is usually added to lubricate the fibres, and to open up the
microscopic scales on strands of wool.
Nonwoven
textiles are manufactured by the bonding of fibres to make fabric.
Bonding may be thermal or mechanical, or adhesives can be used.
Bark cloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.
Treatments
Textiles are often
dyed,
with fabrics available in almost every colour. The dyeing process often
requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours (
tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (
embroidery), creating patterns by
resist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (
tie-dyeing), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (
batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric.
Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in
China. Textiles are also sometimes
bleached, making the textile pale or white.
Textiles are sometimes finished by chemical processes to change their
characteristics. In the 19th century and early 20th century
starching was commonly used to make clothing more resistant to stains and wrinkles.
Eisengarn, meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in
Germany
in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch
and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished
by steel rollers and brushes. The end result of the process is a
lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.
Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as
permanent press process,
finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.
More recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional
advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons
developing permanent treatments based on metallic
nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.
Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From
formaldehyde
finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from
flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities
are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have
detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and
reactive dyes (for example) have been shown to be allergenic to
sensitive individuals. Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.
Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,
due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are
of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form)
are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity,
are concerned.
Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial
laboratories, it is also possible to have textiles tested for according
to the
Oeko-tex certification standard which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.
Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant. Cotton fiber grows in the seed pod or boll of the cotton plant. Each fiber is a single elongated cell that is flat twisted and ribbon-like with a wide inner hollow (lumen).
Cotton was once harvested by hand, often by slave labor or tenant farmers. As recently as 1965, over a fourth of the U.S. cotton crop was picked by hand. Today, harvesting cotton is highly mechanized.
From the field, seed cotton moves to nearby gins for separation of lint and seed. The cotton first goes through dryers to reduce moisture content and then through cleaning equipment to remove foreign matter. These operations facilitate processing and improve fiber quality. The cotton is then air conveyed to gin stands where revolving circular saws pull the lint through closely spaced ribs that prevent the seed from passing through. The lint is removed from the saw teeth by air blasts or rotating brushes and then compressed into bales weighing approximately 500 pounds. Cotton is then moved to a warehouse for storage until it is shipped to a textile mill for use.
